WPC` ~!X?N]DHfH/>lC _ٿ&`1i7;biio6 EM*ҺG1},rXz7t+G5|DhX҈һU8)1zJbQV5۰&>G hzn1 WqKE3[*ɪ^ʰQv'm7Kv[}{e6bsZIUtzEごqIZJ(d`I )L*L ѕ3Fnܱ[iqrF~n#ǔDT=\C9.z%לw]0Si&DaP}#(zS[w|KOp9 p^DҗFU4 % 0D 0\R 0 IAO2  0<   0UN 0L bh I O U[[ Z ` fl B - @J! A"""h$:,KW-/ 15z6 8888<@@DAoDFAY mo `p`PPPPPP D3O D+ 0S 0MMMMM AM'\  `TimesRoman(#$  0  ( $0   < ( g3$    #  0    Ԁ  7 p     4  Ԁ  ݀The adhocnessofthesesupplementsisattributedbythesewriterstothechildinordertoexplain  variousaspectsofthechildsperformance.But,intheabsenceofindependentevidenceforeachofthesupplements,ratherthanregardingthesesupplementsaspatchesappliedbythechildtohisownviews,theyarebetterregardedasadhocpatchesappliedbythetheoristtotheGopnikWellmanPerneraccounts. ( p     6  Ԁ  ݀Theknowledgeabilitydistinctioncanbedrawnatdifferentgrains.Sowithincreasinglysophisticated  modellingofaninformationprocessingsystem,whatappearedatonetimetobesimplyknowledge,say,turnsout x  toincludeanabilitycomponentaswell.Theconversemayalsohappen.Withmoredetailedmodels,whatappearedtobesimplyanabilitymayturnouttohaveaknowledgecomponent(e.g.,theactionplanningsystemmayemployknowledge).Wedonotwanttoruleoutthenthatfutureworkonthetheoryof ToMM willshowthatautistic  impairmentstemspartlyorwhollyfromanimpaired ToMM internalabilitywhichtheninterfereswiththe X deploymentof ToMM internalknowledge.See 1  LeslieandFrith(1990 1 )forfurtherdiscussionofpossibleimpairments   to ToMM . 1($0 3|o ($XX   XXTRY3'Standard USY3'Standard US3'Standard US3'Standard UST ` XW    p     1  Ԁ  ݀Wecouldalwaysgoastepfurtherandarguethat,becauseanymentalcontentyouattributetosomeoneelse  mustnecessarilybeinternallyrepresentedbyyouusingoneofyourownmentalstructures,allattributionisnecessarily simulation.Butagainthisseemspointless.hH Z6Times New Roman Regular(V $     p     2  Ԁ  #  2    Theforemostproponentofthisviewis 1  Perner(1988,1991 1 )whohaslaidoutatlengthwhatheintendsby  attributingaRepresentationalTheoryofMindtothepreschooler.Pernerspositionrestsuponthestandarddistinctionbetweenrepresentationsandpropositions:representationsarephysicalembodimentsorexpressionsofpropositions,thelatterbeing,roughly,abstract meanings.Thethreeyearoldissupposedtohaveaccesstopropositionalattitudeconcepts(sometimescalleda situationtheorybyPerner1991),butPernerassumesthatthesenotionsarenotpowerfulenoughtoallowanunderstandingoffalsebeliefs.Falsebeliefunderstandingonlybecomespossiblelater,atfouryears,asaresultofaradical theoryshifttoaRTM.Leslie&Thaiss(1992)criticisetheseideasatsomelength.AlthoughotherwritersintheRTMcamp(e.g.Flavell,Gopnik,Wellman)alignthemselveswithPerner,theyfailtomakeclearwhethertheytooaredrawingadistinctionbetweenpropositionandrepresentation.Itmaybethat,fortheseformerwriters,notionslikedescriptionandrepresentationcanbeusedindiscriminately.Butifallthatisimportantabouta representationforthesewritersisthat,likeaproposition,itissemanticallyevaluable,thenitishardtoseeinwhat    theradicaltheoryshiftwouldconsist.Everybody,asfarasweknow,agreesthatevenveryyoungchildrenviewtheintentionalstatesandintentionalbehaviourofagentsassemanticallyevaluable.Aswepointoutbelow,thekeyquestionfordecidingwhethertoattributeaRTMtofouryearoldsiswhetherornottheyindividuatebeliefsformallyor syntactically,asopposedtosemantically.  p$     5  Ԁ  Appearancerealitytasksaresometimesclaimedtoplaytheroleofrulingoutgeneralproblemsolving  limitations.Butsuchtasks[tobeprecise,theonesinwhichchildrenmakea realisterror]aresimplyvariationsonthestandard Smartiesfalsebelieftask,sharingbothcontentandcriticalfeaturesoftaskstructurewithstandardtasks.H  $     4  Ԁ  Itiseasytogoroundincirclestradingontheambiguityoftheterm representation.Forexample,theterm  canbeusedwidelysothatbeliefsandpicturesarebothexamplesof representation,oritcanbeusednarrowlysothatitissynonymouswith belief.Inthenarrowsense,Johnrepresentsthesituation(tohimself)aspcanbeusedtomean @ simplyJohnbelievespofthesituation.ItisclearthatiftheRTMviewofthechildslipsfromthewidetothenarrow X senseitiscertainlytruebuttrivial.FornowtheRTMviewsaysthatchildrenacquire(lack)aconceptofbeliefbecausetheyacquire(lack)aconceptofbelief.ThepresentdiscussionofRTMavoidsthisvacuousequation. d  p$     3  Ԁ  Bymetalinguisticknowledge,psychologistsmean,forexample,knowledgethat theisawordorthat   bedisasmallerwordthan butterfly.Youngchildrenwilloftendenythesestatements,apparentlycollapsingthenotion wordwith thing.34D:\WPWIN60\GRAPHICS\FBPHOTO2.WPG=;&OLE Box<<=8Cfnt       2  Ԁ  ݀Wecouldalwayscarrythisastepfurtherandarguethat,becauseanymentalcontentyouattributetosomeone  elsemustnecessarilybeinternallyrepresentedbyyouusingoneofyourownmentalstructures,allattributionisnecessarily simulation.Butagainthisseemspointless.       3  Ԁ  ݀Theforemostproponentofthisviewis 1 Perner(1988,1991 1 )whohaslaidoutatsomelengthwhatheintends   byattributingaRepresentationalTheoryofMindtothepreschooler.Pernerspositionrestsuponthestandarddistinctionbetweenrepresentationsandpropositions:representationsarephysicalembodimentsorexpressionsofpropositions,thelatterbeing,roughly,abstract meanings.Thethreeyearoldissupposedtohaveaccesstosomethinglikepropositionalattitudeconcepts(sometimescalleda situationtheorybyPerner1991),butPernerassumesthatthesenotionsarenotpowerfulenoughtoallowanunderstandingoffalsebeliefs.Falsebeliefunderstandingonlybecomespossiblelater,atfouryears,asaresultofaradical theoryshifttoaRTM.Leslie&Thaiss(1992)criticizetheseideas.AlthoughotherwritersintheRTMcamp(e.g.Flavell,Gopnik,Wellman)alignthemselveswithPerner,theyfailtomakeclearwhethertheytooaredrawingadistinctionbetweenpropositionandrepresentation.Itmaybethat,fortheseotherwriters,notionslikedescriptionandrepresentationcanbeusedindiscriminately.Butifallthatisimportantabouta representationforthesewritersisthat,likeaproposition,itissemanticallyevaluable,thenitishardtoseeinwhattheradicaltheoryshift H   wouldconsist.Everybody,asfarasweknow,agreesthatevenveryyoungchildrenviewtheintentionalstatesandintentionalbehaviorofagentsassemanticallyevaluable.Aswepointoutbelow,thekeyquestionfordecidingwhethertoattributeaRTMtofouryearoldsiswhetherornottheyindividuatebeliefsformallyor syntactically,asopposed `  tosemantically. 0 $     5  Ԁ  By metalinguisticknowledge,psychologistsmean,forexample,knowledgethat theisawordorthat   bedisasmallerwordthan butterfly. A      6  Ԁ  ݀Adhocsupplementsarerequiredbythesewritersinordertoexplainvariousaspectsofthechilds  performance.However,the adhocnessisattributedbythesewriterstothechild!Intheabsenceofindependentevidenceforeachofthesupplements,ratherthanregardingtheseaspatchesappliedbythechildtoherownviews,theyarebetterregardedasadhocpatchesrequiredbytheGopnikWellmanPerneraccounts.  $     7  Ԁ  Appearancerealitytasksaresometimesclaimedtoplaytheroleofrulingoutgeneralproblemsolving  limitations.But,asPerner,Leekam&Wimmer(1987)pointedout,suchtasksaresimplyproceduralvariationsonthestandard Smartiesfalsebelieftask.Thesetaskssharebothconceptualcontentandcriticalfeaturesoftaskstructure.       8  Ԁ  ݀Theknowledgeabilitydistinctioncanbedrawnatdifferentgrains.Sowithincreasinglysophisticated  modellingofaninformationprocessingsystem,whatappearedatonetimetobesimplyknowledge,say,turnsouttoincludeanabilitycomponentaswell.Theconversemayalsohappen.Withmoredetailedmodels,whatappearedtobesimplyanabilitymayturnouttohaveaknowledgecomponent(e.g.,theactionplanningsystemmayemployknowledge).Wedonotwanttoruleoutthenthatfutureworkonthetheoryof ToMM willshowthatautisticimpairment   stemspartlyorwhollyfromanimpaired ToMM internalabilitywhichtheninterfereswiththedeploymentof ToMM     internalknowledge.See 1 LeslieandFrith(1990 1 )forfurtherdiscussionofpossibleimpairmentsto ToMM .Level 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5  = #   @ Figure  1  .  Theperformanceofautisticchildrenandnormal4yearoldchildreniscomparedontwostandardfalsebelief  tasksandontwomatchedphotographstasks.Theautisticchildrendosignificantlyworsethatthenormalchildrenonthefalsebelieftasksandsignificantlybetterthanthenormalchldrenonthetwooutofdatephotogrpahstasks.AfterLeslie&Thaiss,1992.   $     1  Ԁ  ݀TherehavebeensomesuggestionsrecentlythattheToMimpairmentdiscoveredinthesyndromeof  childhoodautismcanbeexplainedasanimpairmentof simulation.Thissuggestioncomesintwoforms.Thefirstisthatautisticimpairmentisspecifictosimulationofthestatesofsocialagents(Harris,1993).Presumably, simulationisrequiredtounderstandthestatesofbeinghappyandbeingsad,yetautisticchildrenunderstandthesestates(BaronCohen,etal.,1993).Oragain,presumably simulationisrequiredtoappreciatethedistinctionbetweenmoraland   conventionalinjunctions,yetautisticchildrenmakethisdistinction(Blair,unpublished).Infact,itlooksverymuchasiftheonly simulationautisticchildrenhavespecificdifficultywitharethosethatrequiremetarepresentation.Thesecondformthesimulationimpairmentinautismproposaltakesisthat simulationisageneralpurposefacultyand ( x r thatautisticchildrenareimpairedinthisgeneralsimulationability(Currie,unpublished).Thisversionoftheaccountsuffers,ofcourse,allthedifficultiesofthefirstversionplussomemore.Forexample,useofvisualimageryisapparentlypartofgeneralsimulation,yetautisticchildrenperformnormallyonstandardtestsofvisualimageryability(Shah,1988).Oragain,whentestedunderthesameconditions,autisticchildrencancorrectlycalculatethecontentofanoutofdatephotograph(drawing,map)butnotthecontentofanoutofdatebelief,(Chapman&BaronCohen,1993;Leslie&Thaiss,1993).Surelybothtasksrequire generalpurposesimulationifeitherdoes.Impairedmetarepresentationalprocessesratherthanimpairedgeneralsimulationexplainsthepattern.Level 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5.D:\WPWIN60\GRAPHICS\TOMMSP.WPGWPCT'T'51313`mm`&&&1D`a&]]&&:LX]a&D`6ama&&mmrfam6D`m66mmXF:6mD`]&mm&&&](`    . 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